Second Language Acquisition in Tertiary Education: Paradigms and Theories

Abstract

Objective. This study criticaly analyses theoretical foundations of language acquisition (LA) be it a first or a second, or any other additional languge that the learner acquires. The paper aims to systemically trace the development of key LA paradigms and theories, conduct an in-depth examination of their underlying principles and assumptions, strengths and limitations, highlight the areas of their convergence/divergence, and outline their implications for practical language instruction in university settings. The overarching goal of this article is to present a coherent, scientifically grounded theoretical foundation for researchers, language instructors, and students majoring in foreign languages. Methods. The study employs the methodology of a systemic critical analysis, exploring the theoretical literature on the issue of LA. This involves following the historical evolvement and evaluating the underlying tenets of foundational theoretical paradigms and theories, beginning from Empiricism (J. Locke) and Developmentalism (J. Piaget, L. Vygotsky), Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development (L. Vygotsky), through Behaviorism (B. Skinner), Cognitive Constructivism (J. Piaget), Nativism and Universal Grammar / LAD theories (N. Chomsky) to Cognitivism (J. Piaget, L. Vygotsky, J. Bruner, N. Chomsky, U. Neisser), the Schema Theory (F. Bartlett), Language of Thought (J. Fodor), the Skill Acquisition Theory (J. Anderson), Sociocultural Theory (L. Vygotsky, J. Wertsch), and Emergentism (J. Mill, N. Ellis, B. MacWhinney, W. O’Grady). The study critically discusses the assumptions, contributions and limitations of each theory. The applied methodology synthesizes the information drawn from most recent scholarly publications (including research within the last five years) to trace the current state of the problem under discussion, identify persistent theoretical debates around the most controversial issues, and identify the ongoing challenges to bridge theory and practice for language instruction in university settings. Results. The article exposes numerous paradigms and theoretical perspectives offering distinct interpretations of the LA process. In particular, Empiricism emphasizes the role of experience, while Developmentalism ties language learning to broader cognitive and social development, introducing concept such as the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD); Behaviorism prioritizes habit formation through drilling exercises and positive reinforcement, proposing observable outcomes but omitting internal cognitive processes and learner creativity; Nativism revolutionizes this field by hypothesizing the existence of an innate Language Acquisition Device (LAD) and Universal Grammar (UG), expounding the ease and rate of LA; Cognitivism focuses on internal mental processes, viewing LA as complicated skill learning, moving towards automaticity; Constructivism brings to the forefront the active learner, specifically, Cognitive Constructivism links learning to internal cognitive development phases of an individual. The exploration of particular cognitive theories discloses the Schema Theory postulating the idea that meaning is actively constructed by integrating new information with prior cognitive structures (schemata). It differentiates between linguistic, content, and formal schemata, employed to facilitate foreign language pedagogy. J. Fodor’s Language of Thought theory takes a strong nativist stance, arguing that learning is the re-representation of an innate, universal “mentalese” and not the acquisition of new concepts – a position criticized for evolutionary implausibility. The Skill Acquisition Theory (SAT) considers LA as the advancement from explicit, declarative knowledge to implicit, procedural knowledge through practice, from conscious effort to automatic performance. The Sociocultural Theory further enhances cultural mediation and social origin of higher mental processes. Finally, Emergentism challenges Nativist views by premising that complex language is not pre-programmed but emerges from the interaction between general learning mechanisms and a rich linguistic environment, where learners extract statistical regularities from massive input. Conclusions. The conducted research allowed arriving at the conclusion that no single LA theory provides a deep understanding of how successful LA can occur, but the integrated body of paradigms and theories offers valuable insights for this process. A critical understanding and synthesis of distinctive perspectives, such as acknowledging their strengths and weaknesses, alongside the intersection points, is vital to advancing research and, most importantly, to providing more evidence-based and learner-centered pedagogical practice, curriculum development, and teacher-trainee education according to ciriculum goals in university language instruction.